Samenvatting

Objective: Simulation training in medical settings is a cornerstone in medical education to practice technical and
non-technical skills. The objective of this study was to evaluate user experiences and initial reactions to a
multiplayer virtual reality (VR) simulation designed for anaesthesiologists.
Methods: A user-centred design approach guided the development of a VR-scenario training simulating a case of
massive blood loss. Seven anaesthesiology residents and trainers from a Dutch academic hospital participated in
qualitative and quantitative evaluations. Quantitative measures included questionnaires on presence, agency,
physical dyscomfort, and perceived training value. Qualitative data were collected through structured observations and interviews.
Results: Participants reported a high sense of physical presence and moderate agency, with lower levels of selfpresence. The VR environment was perceived as realistic and engaging. Challenges included unfamiliarity with
VR controls, abstract avatars, and limited haptic feedback. Despite these barriers, participants recognized the
potential of VR for team-based learning of non-technical skills, especially with prior onboarding or practice
sessions.
Innovation: This study introduces a novel application of multiplayer VR simulation in anaesthesiology training,
focusing on non-technical skills. The integration of user-centred design with qualitative and quantitative evaluation provides insights into the feasibility and acceptability of VR as an educational tool in this context.
Conclusions: VR simulation shows promise for training non-technical skills in anaesthesiology. While participants
appreciated the realism and collaborative aspects, enhancements in usability and interaction design are necessary for broader implementation and impact.