Worldwide, an increasing number of students seek private supplementary tutoring, known as ‘shadow education.’ Various studies report social class differences in the use of shadow education. High-SES families may invest in shadow education as a form of concerted cultivation, seeking to improve their children’s …

During the last decade, the relationship between university and non-university higher education institutions has changed. As a contribution to the knowledge economy, non-university higher education institutions are expected to educate their students in research activities. Previously, teaching was the …